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The Karakorum Glaciers
Polar Regions
Non-Polar Regions
The Geological and Climatic Exception of the Karakorum range
The Surge of the Glaciers and their devastating results
The Rapid Advance of Pumari Chhish Glacier since 1985
My own personal observations of the Pumari Chhish Glacier
The Sudden Rise of the Chiring Glacier in 1992
The Rapid ice Surge, seen by explorers of the 19th Century
The ice Surge and the abandom of commercial routes
The Glaciologists outline an answer
References

The Sudden Surge of the Chiring Glacier in 1992 :

The Panmah glacier, the sixth biggest of Karakorum range, is situated approx 30km west of K2. It's main affluent, the Chiring glacier, has been under observation because of major growths of ice.

Click to enlarge

These scientific observations become extremely interesting when compared to those of the English explorers commenting the Chiring glacier in the 19th century which they knew because they were on the famous Mustagh pass. Hereafter, an extract of a scientific observation report coming from the research center of the Ontario-Canada Polar Regions :

[At the head of the Chiring is the New Mustagh Pass (5,800 m), an ancient route to central Asia. The discovery that Chiring is a surging glacier gives a new slant to an old debate about the role of glacier fluctuations in historic closings of this and other glacier passes to Inner Asia. Maps, drawings, and photographs from 1856, 1861, 1929 and 1937 show the lower Chiring was easily crossed by travelers [Godwin-Austen in 1864; Desio in 1929; Shipton in 1938; and Kick in 1993). Although altitude and bad weather posed problems, the upper glacier also offered a relatively straightforward traverse to the pass.
However, in 1887 a British explorer, Francis Younghusband, coming from the Chinese side, found the pass closed. After crossing by another route, he attempted to ascend the Chiring but found it impassable because of "... an immense ice-slip on to the glacier and gigantic blocks of ice... tumbled about on top of one another" (Younghusband, 1896). His descriptions accord with the effects of a surge and strongly suggest that the Chiring last surged in 1885B87, giving a surge cycle of about 110 years.]

(coming from an article of the AGU site, of Cold Region Research Center, Wilfrid Laurier University, 75 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada :http://www.agu.org/eos_elec/97106e.html ).

The Rapid Ice Surge, seen by the Explorers of the 19th Century :

The fact that the Chiring glacier may also have sudden surges, bring back alive an old discussion concerning the roles of fluctuation of the Karakorum range glaciers. The Chiring glacier had been in use for a long time by the following explorers : Godwin Austen in 1864, Younghusband in 1887 and 1896, Desio in 1929 and Shipton in 1938. The following remarks were taken frrom the book "Blank on the Map" wherein Erik Shipton compares the observations made by his collegues concerning the glaciers around the Muztagh pass.
John Auden, our expedition geologist, gives comments about the rise of ice in an article of the Royal Geographic, on January 10, 1938.

We were all impressed by the recent decrease of the thickness of the Sarpo Laggo glacier and the "crevassed glacier" close to their final tongues. It's been confirmed that these glaciers undergo various periodical changes of growth, this according to certain witnesses, because at that time, they were either easy or difficult to approach. The affluent of the Nobande Sobane glacier, who contributes to the swelling of the ice coming from the Panmah glacier, was inaccessible to Younghusband in 1887, as from Skinmag. It was however, smooth and without crevasses in 1929 when Desio skied through, up to its final tongue. In 1937, the ice was severely brocken near the top.

In 1892 Conway, trying the Nushik pass, found a passage between Skardu and the Hispar glacier and then indicated the following :
"The passage was not supposed to be extremely difficult, live stock was to have gone through the pass. However, the natives admitted that they rarely used it, if at all, had it become necessay. They declared that the path disappeared under the ice and that it ceased to exist as useable itinary. The explication of the natives was confirmed by Godwin-Austen and later by Mayor Cunningham. What they found at the Nushik pass was a rocky passage of ice pinnales which led them to a difficult snowy slope under the pass. Neither one or the other were able to climb the pass. Bruce and Eckenstein had lots of problems when they went through in 1892".

Remarks translated from the book "Blank on the Map" "The six mountain travel books" (Diadem Books Ltd - 1985 edition p189 Erik Shipton 1939)

The Ice Surge and abandon of commercial routes :

shyok river map (Alpine journal 1929)

In his book "Blank on the Map" Erik Shipton wonders about the sudden growths of certain glaciers and the consequences of passage for the men in these high Karakorum range passes. Shipton, whose project it was to rejoin the Baltoro and Shaksgam by passing by a hypothetical pass, wonders if the passage will be easy or not. One by one, he re-examinds the remarks made by his collegues concerning physionomical changes of this or that glacier pass and compares their viewpoints regarding the curious phenomena of the sudden glacier surges.

Before continuing with my narrative 1 should like to discuss briefly the causes of the abandonment of these ancient routes across the passes of the high Karakorum range. In the passage quoted in this chapter from Sir Francis Younghusband's book, there are several allusions to this question. He aiso refers to it in the letter which he wrote to his father in 1887 describing his crossing of the Mustagh pass:
"On ascending towards the Mustagh pass my real difficulties began. Since my guides had crossed, an immense glacier had advanced, completely blocking up the valley with ice and immense boulders." In each case the suggestion is that the increase in the size of the glaciers is the principal reason for the disuse of the passes into Yarkand. This theory agrees with the view, stated many years before, of Godwin-Austen, who was the first man to do any detailed scientific work in the district. He states in his paper, "On the Glaciers of the Mustakh Range" (Royal Geographical Society, 1864), that when he visited the district in 1861, the main Mustagh pass was aiready closed, "owing to the great increase of snow and ice", and an alternative route had been found (the New Mustagh pass). He mentions that in his time pontes and yaks were frequently brought over the new pass from Yarkand. While he was camping on the Panmah glacier in August of 1861, four men came ovei>tne pass from Yarkand. They were Baltis who had emigrated to Turkestan some years; before. They had experienced much difficulty on the actual pass. In discussing the question in his paper, Godwin-Austen says: "I have often been struck by the indications of considerable amounts of change of temperature within what we may call our own times. Many passes which were used even in the time of Rajah Ahmed, Shah of Skardo, are now closed. The road to Yarkund over the Baltoro glacier, which before his time was known as the Mustakh, has by the increase of the ice near the pass become quite impracticable. The men of the Braldoh valley were accordingly ordered to search for another route, which they found in the present pass, at the head of the Panmah glacier above Chiring. Again, the Jusserpo La can now be crossed on foot whereas in former times pontes could be taken over it. The pass at the head of the Hoh Loombah ts now never used, though there is a tradition that it was once a pass; no one, however, of the present generation that 1 could hear ofhad ever crossed it. Certain large glaciers have advanced, such as that at Arundu, of which the old men assured me that in their young days the terminal cliff was one and a haïf miles distant from the village. Mr. Vigne says, 'It was a considerable distance' ; it is now oniy about four hundred yards. A like increase has taken place at Panmah, where within the last six years the old road has been completely covered by the ice and moraine, and where Mahomed, my guide, told me the old camping ground was, now lies a quarter of a mile under the ice: the overthrown trees and bushes plainly testified to the recent advance which this mass had made; this evidence was equally well seen along the side of the Arundu glacier." In the same paper, however, Godwin-Austen mentions the decrease in the size of the main glaciers of the Karakorum range. This apparent discrepancy is supported by present geological opinion, which hoids that there are cycles in the increase and decrease of these glaciers, not necessarily simultaneous in the case of ail glaciers of the district. John Auden, the geologist of our expedition,
in his appendix to the paper 1 read to the Royal Geographical Society on January lOth, 1938,says: "All of us were impressed by the recent decrease in thickness of the Sarpo Laggo and Crevasse glaciers near their snouts. That these glaciers are subject to periodic changes is suggested by historical records, since at different times they have been easy and difficult of access. The Nobande Sobande branch of the Panmah was inaccessible to Younghusband in 1887 beyond Skinmang. It was so smooth and uncrevassed in 1929 that Desio was able to ski up to its head. In 1937 it was again highiy broken up." In 1892, Conway, discussing the Nushik La, a pass lying between Skardu and the Hispar glacier, says: "The pass was believed not to present any extraordinary difficulties, and even cattle were stated to have been taken over it. Of late years, however, the natives admit that they have rarely crossed it, if at ail. They state that the road became buried in snow, and that it ceased to exist as a practicable route from their point of view." The natives' explanation was corroborated by Godwin-Austen and subsequently by Major Cunningham, who both found this pass to be corniced with an overhanging wave of snow, leading to a difficult snow-slope below. Neither of them crossed the pass, though Cunningham attempted it. Bruce and Eckenstein, members of Conway's party, experienced a good deal of difficulty in crossing this pass in 1892.

The Biafo glacier

Colonel Schomberg in his book Unknown Karakorum range, which describes his expedition to the Shimshal district in 1934, agrees with the theory that the ancient routes have become impracticable because ofincreased glaciation. He adds that in his opinion the change is exceptional and comparatively recent. He writes: "From what 1 have seen of the glaciers of this region, and have gleaned from the large volume of tradition, 1 am certain that the extensive glaciation is recent, at a hazard not more than about one hundred years old. Before then, the accumulation of ice and snow did not prevent people from crossing to and fro from Baltistan to Hunza and Nagir, and certainly into several parts of the Mustagh valley . . . 1 think, moreover, that the time is coming, but it will not be for some decades, when these routes will be again open, provided, of course, increased glaciation does not take place. There is no reason why it should, as judging from past history the great increase in the glaciers was definitely exceptional."But though Younghusband, Schomberg, and the other explorers ail agree that the old passes have become impracticable because of the increased glaciation, it is probable, in my opinion, that this theory is incorrect, and that the present blocking of the passes is in most cases due to the disintegration of the glaciers: not to increased glaciation, but to the breaking up of the ice. In the earlier days there may have been easy snow-covered ice-slopes leading up to the passes, which in the graduai deterioration of the glaciers have become jagged, steep and impassable.
It should be remembered that the local reports on which the explorers have founded their theories, are those of untrained observers, who having encountered greater difficulty with the ice on the passes, assumed as a matter of course that there was more ice than before. Whereas, in my experience, glaciers which are in a rapid state of decay present many more obstacles than are met with on the smooth surfaces of actively growing glaciers. The decaying condition of the Sarpo Laggo glacier, which will be described later in my narrative, illustrates this theory. It was on the lower reaches of this glacier that the decay was most evident. And it was this condition that caused so much difficulty both to Younghusband in 1887 and to ourselves fifty years later.
In spite of this 1 do not question the fact that there has recently been an increase in some of the glaciers, and the passages quoted from Godwin-Austen's paper, read to the Royal Geographical^Society in 1884, give definite proof of this. Later in the same paper hevSays,^"As we skirted the Kero Loombah glacier, evident signs that it was nowon-the increase were constantly to be seen in the masses of upturned and broken turf."Also, we ourselves found an astonishing increase in the side glacier which barred our way down to Mone Brangsa. This glacier had been reported by Desio, in 1929, to be an insignificant ice-stream, but by 1937 we found that it was a formidable obstacle.

Ice of Biafo glacier

With so much conflicting data it is extremely difficult to assert the correct solution of the problem. But personally, 1 do not think that the main reason for the closing of the passes is due to the increase of the ice. But whatever the reason, it is certain that these passes across the main range of the Karakorum range were used extensively in former times by native travellers going from Baltistan into Yarkand, and are now completely impracticable for native transport. Of course the disuse may be due to other causes besides the difficulty of snow and ice conditions. Schomberg suggests that there is no incentive now for trade between Baltistan and Shimshal. For the Shimshalis can now get ail they require from Hunza, owing to the development of the Hunza valley in the last century, without having to cross any difficult country to obtain supplies. This, however, does not explain the cessation of trade between Baltistan and Turkestan across the Mustagh pass, nor between Hunza and Baltistan across the Hispar pass. Another theory is put forward by Godwin-Austen, who suggests that the old routes were abandoned because they were frequented by robbers. He says that the former route over the Hispar pass was given up because of the danger of these raids, and an alternative route was adopted, which seemed to be free from the menace of attack by bandits. This route must presumably have been up the Crevasse glacier which we explored. But in my opinion it is almost unbelievable that this route was ever used, for its length would have been enormous and its difficulties considerable.
But whatever the reason for the present disuse of the passes, it is a noteworthy fact that travellers nowadays not oniy find that the passes are closed, but they have great difficulty in getting any information about the former existence ofthe routes across them.
It would be valuable historically to send an expedition into this country to try and trace the remains of old routes and disused habitations, and to determine the migratory history of the primitive people of these remote districts.

(remarks translated from the book "Blank on the Map" "The six mountain travel books" (Diadem Books Ltd - 1985 edition, p190-191, Erik Shipton, 1939).

The Glaciologists outline an answer :

The following article comes from an AGU site, which, in turn, comes from a research center of the polar regions (Ontario-Canada). It proposes means of reflection without however affirming for sure the reasons of this particular phenomena concerning the sudden glacier surges so special for the Karakorum range glaciers.

Surges raise some special and partly unresolved questions for glaciologists, including the conditions that initiate surging, the nature of fast glacier flow, and whether deposits left by surges can help identify their role in the history of glaciation. Sharp [1988] and Menzies [1995, pp. 179B199] provide useful summaries and bibliographies.
There is a consensus that, whatever the controlling factors and exact mechanisms, the key to surging lies in conditions that promote large, episodic instability at the glacier bed. Proposed trigger mechanisms include fluctuations in thermal or hydrological conditions or in deformable subglacial sediment, acting alone or in combination.
Nevertheless, the geography of surges is highly uneven. There are large numbers in just a few regions, while none have been recognized in most glacierized areas. This suggests there are special but varying combinations of environmental conditions that promote or suppress surging. It is in relation to these questions that the Karakorum range glaciers and the kinds of evidence available for them are of broadest scientific interest (Table 2).
These glaciers lie between 3,000 and 7,500 m above sea level, much higher than the more intensively studied examples of the Alaska-Yukon ranges, Svalbard, or Iceland. They lie in subtropical latitudes similar to examples in Andean Argentina and have an extreme continental location comparable to the nearby Pamir surging glaciers. However, there is heavy snowfall and year-round avalanching at high elevations, which promotes rates of flow and throughput of ice comparable to more humid conditions and maritime glaciers.
As with the Chiring, the glaciers are surrounded by precipitous rock walls of enormous extent and elevation range. This relates to, perhaps, their most distinctive feature. Many Karakorum range glaciers, and all of those known to surge, are predominantly or wholly avalanche fed. The highest precipitation occurs in the perennial ice climate zone between 5,000 and 7,000 m. Avalanches carry this more abundant snow directly to the glaciers. Much of it accumulates at or below the regional snow and firn limits, which are at about 5,000B5,500 m. The succession of relatively warm and dirty summer avalanches and cold winter ones can result in complex thermal layering and debris-rich horizons in the ice.
Avalanche-derived ice tends to be heavily freighted with debris. This relatively dirty ice contributes to higher melting rates in the upper and middle ablation zones, while thick supraglacial debris suppresses melting in the lower ablation zones. Enormous ramps of debris develop and build outward beside and beneath the ablation zones of these avalanche-fed glaciers. Surging may be influenced by an unusual buildup of deformable sediment beneath these zones and/or by unstable transitions from frozen to unfrozen bed conditions.
Karakorum range surges occur in a highly active tectonic zone with globally extreme rates of uplift and denudation. The glaciers drape the highest parts of the range, where a series of steeply inclined lithospheric thrust faults occur. However, structures and rock types are complex and poorly known where blanketed by snow and ice. Most surging glaciers cross two or more major formations. No specific or distinctive relationship of surging to lithology, indicated in some other regions, has yet been found. Hot springs are widespread across the region and it has been suggested they, or the geothermal heat flow implied, could be a factor in surges.

Impressive front of the Teram Shehr Glacier (North Siachen area)

References :

This page was set up based on the following elements
- An article published on the University of New Hampshire, site, Institute for the Study of Earth, Ocean and Space, Morse Hall, 39 College Road, Durham :
http://www.ccrc.sr.unh.edu/~cpw/Searle93/searle.html

- An article published on website of AGU, Cold Regions Research Centre, Wilfrid Laurier University, 75 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada :
http://www.agu.org/eos_elec/97106e.html

"Blank on the Map" "The six mountain travel books" (Diadem Books Ltd - 1985 edition) Erik Shipton (1939)

Révision A - 08/01/06 (http://blankonthemap.free.fr)

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